Qualitative Research Methods

A

Adjacency pair

Sequencing of interaction like question-answer is known as adjacency pair.

Analytical induction

Strategy to use negative/deviant cases for assessing and elaborating findings, models, or theories developed is known as analytical induction.

A prior

Latin expression for "beforehand" is known as a prior. For example, working with categories defined before entering the field or before beginning to analyze material.

Auditing

Strategy to assess a process (in accounting or in research) in all it's steps and components is known as auditing.

Authorized starters

Ways of beginning a formalized interaction like counseling is known as authorized starters.

B

Background theories

Theories which are informing qualitative research approaches with a specific concept of reality and research is known as background theories.

C

Canonization

A clear definition of methods by formulating standards of how to apply them leading to consensus about it and general acceptance of it is known as canonization. For example, by defining rules of how to formulate questions in the specific form of interview.

Chicago school

A very influential group of researchers and approaches in the history of qualitative research at the University of Chicago; background of approaches like grounded theory is known as chicago school. For example, research focused on how the community of (e.g., polish) immigrants in chicago was socially organized, how members maintained their cultural identity or adapted to a new one (of being American).

Closing gestalt

A specific format is completed "Gestalt" refers to the fact that the whole is more than a sum of its parts is known as closing gestalt. For example, to tell a story until its end, once a narrator started story telling.

Codes of ethics

Sets of rules of good practice in research (or interventions) set up by professional associations or by institutions as an orientation for their members is known as codes of ethics.

Coding

Development of concepts in the context of grounded theory is known as coding. For example, to label pieces of data and allocate other pieces of data to them (and the label).

D

Dialectics

Relation between two concepts, which includes contradiction and complementarity is known as dialectics. For example, in entering the field, researchers have to build up enough familiarity with the field to understand it from within. At the same time, they have to maintain the enough distance to be able to do a scientific analysis from an outsider's perspective.

Discourse analysis

Studies of how language is used in certain contexts; for example, how specific identities, practices, knowledge, or meanings are produced by describing in something just that way compared to other ways is known as discourse analysis. For instance, the way that the medi write and people talk about phenomenon like AIDS has changed over the years, which gains has influenced the social relationships to the people having AIDS. This discourse and its consequences can be analyzed to better understand the phenomenon.

Disenchantment (of the world)

Disentanglement of the mysteries of the world by rational, empirical analysis is known as disenchantment (of the world). The term was coined by sociologist Max Weber to describe the goal of social research-that is, to develop an analysis, a description, or an explanation for a phenomenon, which was unclear before.

E

Episodic interview

A specific form of interview, which combines question-answer sequences with narratives (of episodic) is known as episodic interview.

Episodic knowledge

Knowledge based on memories of situations and their concrete circumstances is known as episodic knowledge.

Epistemology

Theories of knowledge and perception in science is known as epistemology.

Ethics committees

Committees in universities and sometimes also in professional associations, which assess research proposals (for dissertations or funding) for the ethical soundness are known as ethical committees. If necessary, these committees pursue violations of ethical standards.

Ethnography

A research strategy combining different methods, but based on participation, observation, and writing about a field under study is known as ethnography. For example, for studying how homeless adolescents deal with health issues, a participant observation in their community is combined with interviewing the adolescents. The overall image of details from this participation, observation, and interviewing is unfolded in the written text about the field. the way of writing gives the representations of  the field a specific form.

F

Field notes

Notes taken by researchers about their thoughts and observations when they are in field or "environment" they are researching is known as field notes.

First-degree constructions

Lay explanation of phenomenon, which can be used to develop a scientific explanation (second degree construction) is known as first-degree constructions. For example, people's lay theories of their specific diseases can become a first step for developing a more general concept of everyday knowledge of the disease.

Focus groups

Research method used in market and other forms of research, in which a group is invited to discus the issue of study for research purpose is known as focus groups.

Focused interview

A specific interview form, which was developed systematically for analyzing the effects of propaganda by asking a number of different types of questions is known as focused interview. Its concept can still be very informative for developing semi-standardized interviews.

Folk psychology

Lay people's psychological explanations of phenomenon is known as folk psychology.

Formal theory

A more general theory (in grounded theory research) referring to more than one area is known as formal theory.

G

Generalization

Transfer of research results to situations and populations that were not part of research situation is known as generalization.

Generative questions

Questions stimulating the investigation; leading to hypothesis, useful comparisons, the collection of certain classes of data is known as generative questions.

Genre analysis

An extension of the concept of conversation analysis to bigger formats of interaction like gossip is known as genre analysis. For example, if people talk about specific a experience with an institution, they can use the format of gossiping about certain people instead of reporting facts and figures. The use of this interaction format can be analyzed for its effects.

Going native

A metaphor for describing the situation when researchers lose their professional distance to the field they study and become participants at the expense of their ability to observe is known as going native.

Grounded theory

A theory developed from analyzing empirical material or from studying a field or process is known as grounded theory.

H

Hermeneutics

The study of interpretations of texts in the humanities is known as hermeneutic. Hermeneutical interpretation seeks to arrive at valid interpretations of the meanings of the text. There is an emphasis on the multiplicity of meaning in the text, and on the interpreter's foreknowledge of the subject matter of the text.

Heuristic

Tools for dealing with a complex issue leading to first solutions and stimulating further analysis is known as heuristic. For example, to ask questions about a text may be analyzed may be a first and fruitful step on the to developing category for classifying this text.

Hybridization

The pragmatic use of methodological principles and avoidance of a restricting subscription to a specific methodological discourse is known as hybridization. For example, the use of observation and interviewing in ethnography in a pragmatic way.

I

Iconic turn

The shift from using text as empirical material to using images (in addition or instead) is known as iconic turn. For example, the use of video material instead of doing interviews.

Indication

Decision about when exactly (under which conditions) a specific method (or combination of methods) should be used is known as indication.

Informed consent

A requirement for ethically sound research, which means that participants in a study are informed that they are being studied and given a chance to say no to the research is known as informed consent.

Interpretive repertoires

Ways of talking or writing about a specific phenomenon is known as interpretive repertoires. For example, the culture of an ethnic group in society can be seen and talked about as a heritage and thus as something basically referring to the past, or as a therapy or thus something which is important in the present for building a society identity and for struggling against another group's dominance.

L

Latent structures of meaning

Underlying and implicit levels of meaning production in actions and interaction, which can be identified in scientific hermeneutic analysis is known as latent structures of meaning.

Leitmotif

Guiding idea or general principle in pursuing a goal is known as leitmotif. For example, to orient the decision between methodological alternatives on the characteristics of the issue under study can be leitmotif.

Longitudinal studies

A design in which the researchers come back repeatedly after some time to the field and the participants to do interviews several times again in order to analyze development and changes is known as longitudinal studies.

M

Mediated data

Data collected by using media (photo,film,video) or derived from media like written documents or the internet is known as mediated data.

Mediation

Finding a balance between two points of reference is known as mediation. For example, between pursuing the questions in the interview schedule and the spontaneous talk and the contribution of the interviewee.

Member check

Assessment of results (or of data) by asking the participants for their consensus is known as member check.

Membership role

Ways of positioning for researchers in the field they study is known as membership role.

Memo

A document written in the research process to note ideas, questions, relations, results etc is known as memo. In grounded theory research, memos are building blocks for developing a theory.

N

Narrative

A story told by a sequence of words, actions, or images, and more generally the organization of the information within the story is known as narrative.

Narrative interview

A specific form of interview based on one extensive narrative. Instead of asking questions, the interviewer asks the participants to tell the story of their lives (or their illness, for example) as a whole, without interrupting them with questions is known as narrative interview.

Natural design

Data are not produced by using methods (like an interview) but only by recording interactions in the daily life of participants is known as natural design. For instance, instead of asking participants for their version of a conflict (and thus shaping the data with the questions) examples of such conflicts occurring among them are recorded without any other intervention by the researchers.

Naturalistic sociology

A form of field research trying to understand the field under study from within and with its own categories by using methods like participant observation and ethnography is known as naturalistic sociology. Categories for analyzing data are developed from the material and not derived from the existing theories.

O

Objective hermeneutics

A way of doing research by analyzing texts for identifying latent structures of meaning underlying these texts and explaining the phenomena that are the issues of the text and the research is known as objective hermeneutics. For example, analyzing the transcript of a family interaction can lead to identifying and elaborating an implicit conflict underlying the communication of the members in this interaction and on other occasions is known as objective hermeneutic. This conflict as a latent structure of meaning shapes the members interaction without them being aware of it.

Objectivity

The degree in which a research situation (the application of methods and their outcome) is independent from the single researcher is known as objectivity.

OPAC

Electronic catalogue of a library, sometimes giving access to the catalogues of several libraries at the same time is known as OPAC.

P

Paradigms

Basic concepts of how to do research in a specific field with consequences on the levels of methodology and theory is known as paradigm.

Paralinguistic elements of communication

Non-verbal part of communication like laughter, smiling and certain looks is known as paralinguistic elements of communication. For example, the same wording can be accompanied by smiling or by looking angrily, both of which will influence how the message is received.

Paraphrase

A formulation of the core of information in a specific sentence or statement without taking the specific formulations into account is known as paraphrase.

Participant observation

A specific form of observation based on the researcher becoming a member of the field under study in order to do the observation is known as participant observation.

Performative turn

The shift from analyzing texts as representations of data to using performative qualities in two respects: to see actions and interactions as performances in order to express specific meanings and to analyze the way they are performed (which means are used); and to use performative formats (dance, poems, acting) as ways of publishing results of research is known as performative turn.

Q

Quality management

Approach for promoting the quality of a process with a stress on the common development and clarification of the standards to be met in the process involving all members of the team is known as quality management.

Qualitative research

Research interested in analyzing the subjective meaning and the social production of issues, events, or practices by collecting non-standardized data and analyzing texts and images rather than numbers and statistics is known as qualitative research.

Quantitative research

Research interested in frequencies and distributions of issues, events or practices by collecting standardized data and using numbers and statistics for analyzing them is known as qualitative research.

R

Reflexivity

A concept of research which refers to acknowledging the input of the researchers in actively co-constructing the situation which they want to study. It also alludes to the use to which such insights can be put in making sense of or interpreting data is known as reflexivity. For example, presenting oneself as an interviewer in an open-minded and empathetic way can have a positive and intensifying impact on the interviewees way of dealing with their experiences. Researchers irritations after reading a transcript can be a starting point for asking specific questions about the text.

Reliability

One of the standard in standardized/quantitative research, measured for example by repeating a test and assessing whether the results are the same in both cases is known as reliability.

Repair oragnization

A mechanism for correcting mistakes or deviations in interactions is known as repair organization.

Representativeness

A concept referring to the generalization of the research and results is known as representativeness. Either it is understood in the statistical way-is the population represented in the sample in the distribution of features (age, gender, employments etc)? or it is understood in a theoretical way-are the study and its results covering the theoretically relevant aspects of the issue? 

Research design

A systematic plan for a research project including who to integrate in the research (sampling), who or what to compare for which dimensions, etc is known as research design.

S

Sampling

Selection of cases or materials for the study from the larger population or variety of possibilities is known as sampling.

Second-degree constructions

Scientific explanations or conceptualization based on lay concepts in the life world, which are held by the members is known as second-degree constructions. For example, lay theories concerning a specific illness can be taken as a starting point for analyzing the social representations of this illness.

Semantic-conceptual knowledge

Knowledge organized around concepts, their meanings, and relations to each other is known as semantic-conceptual knowledge.

Sensitizing concepts

Concepts that suggests directions along which to look and rest on the general sense of what is relevant are known as sensitizing concepts.

Sensual validity

A form of validity discussed in postmodernism is known as sensual validity, also referred to as situated validity. This kind of validity of the study is increased when the text is not only written in the disembodied voice, but included an embodied, emotional, reflexive, voice as well.

T

Tabula Rasa

Latin for "empty table" is known as tabula rasa. This is used to describe an approach of starting research without reading the literature about the field or the issue and is also used for criticizing this approach. This notion was coined in the beginning of grounded theory research but is no longer held by most researchers in the area.

Textualization (of the world)

A research perspective starting from the notion that we can not not analyze the world itself, but only texts written about phenomena in the world is known as textualization. For example, according to such perspective, social processes can only be analyzed in the form of interaction protocols (or transcripts) of communications among the members.

Thematic coding

An approach involving the analysis of data in the comparative way for certain topics after case studies (of interviews, for example) have been done is known as thematic coding.

Theoretical sampling

The sampling procedure in grounded theory research, where cases, groups, or materials are sampled according to their relevance for the theory that is developed and on the background of what is already the status of knowledge after collecting and analyzing the certain number of cases is known as theoretical sampling.

Theoretical saturation

The point in grounded theory research at which more data about a theoretical category does not produce any further theoretical insights is known as theoretical saturation.

U

Utilization research

A form of research interested in analyzing the way how results from earlier research projects and scientific knowledge in general are used in practical context is known as utilization research.

V

Validity

One of the standard criteria in standardized/quantitative research, analyzed for example by looking for confounding influences (internal validity) or for transferability to situations beyond the current research situation (external validity) is known as validity.

Verbal data

Data produced by speaking (in an interview or a group discussion) about a topic is known as verbal data.

Verstehen

German word for "to/understand" is known as verstehen. It describes an approach to understanding a phenomenon more comprehensively than reducing it to one explanation (e.g., cause-effect relation). For instance, to understand how people live with their chronic illness, a detailed description of their everyday life may be necessary, rather than identifying a specific variable (e.g., social support) for explaining the degree of success in their coping behaviour.

Virtual ethnography

Ethnography in the internet (e.g., participation in a blog or discussion group) is known as virtual ethnography.

Visual data

Data coming from images (photo, film, video) is known as visual data.

Vulnerable population

People in a specific situation (social discrimination, risks, illness) which makes a specific sensitiveness necessary when studying them is known as vulnerable population.

Z

Zugzwangs (in narratives)

A term taken from the context of playing chess is known as Zugzwangs. It means that sometimes you are forced to take a second move once you have made a certain first move. for example, once you have started a narrative, a certain implicit force may drive you to continue this narrative to its end or to provide enough details so that your listeners may understand the situation, process, and point in your story.